popular election of senators

     The Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1913,  provides for the popular election of senators.  Before passage of the seventeenth amendment, senators had been elected by the legislatures of each state. The senate was originally meant to provide something like a buffer between popular elections and the federal government. The founders of the United States believed in democracy, but within limits. When the United States Constitution was ratified, only white males over 21 who owned property could vote. Free white males, that is, which had a specific meaning--no indentured person or apprentice or prisoner could vote. It is unlikely that an indentured servant or apprentice would have had enough property to vote, anyway.  Qualifications for voting in federal elections were left up to the states, so they varied a bit from state to state. According to the federal Constitution, anyone who could vote in a local election ( for the state House of Representatives, or lower branch of the legislature ) could vote in a national election.

wages and salaries

     The basic difference between being paid a wage and being paid a salary is that wages are paid by the hour, and salaries are paid by the week or month.  Employees who are paid hourly wages may have health and other benefits provided by their employers. Salaried employees usually have health benefits, but not always. Hourly wage employees may be paid time and a half for overtime. Salaried employees are rarely paid overtime, although they are sometimes compensated for overtime with an extra day off--a personal day or vacation day.

sunspots

      Sunspots are the spots you can see on the sun ( as in the celestial body that lights planet Earth ).  Sunspots, or the conditions that cause sunspots, are supposed to affect magnetism on Earth, including TV and cell phone reception.
     The spots that appear on some people's skin after exposure to the sun are called freckles.  Freckles are considered harmless, but not stylish. They fade, but do not completely disappear.

free will

     Do human beings have free will? That is, do they decide what to do, or has it already been decided for them? I believe that people have free will, but many people disagree. Some people believe that all human behavior is predestined by an almighty God, the theory being that if God is almighty, then no one could do anything except God's will. This theory has God the giant puppet-master, of sorts, "making" us all do things--or not do them. The theory does not explain why God punishes people ( another popular theory ) who are only doing God's will, since they can't do anything else. The will of God theory leaves humans with no choices to make, no morals, and no conscience. It's basically a form of nihilism ( nothingism).
     There is another set of "predestined" or "determined" philosophers, who believe that we don't make any choices, really. Everything that happens is just a reaction to things that have happened in the past. The fall of the first leaf in the Garden of Eden is still having repercussions that we can feel  today. If I drop a coffee cup, the fate of the world, and the destiny of humankind, may be altered. Of course I could only have dropped the coffee cup in reaction to some other physical event.This theory is also nihilistic.
     Both of these theories claim that people don't make choices. People who strongly believe in these theories may have difficulty making the connection between their behavior and its consequences. They may repeat behavior, even though they didn't like the outcome the first time.  Tell them they need to propitiate the gods, and they may agree. Tell them they need to change their behavior, and you'll get an argument.

absolutes

      Philosophers argue about the existence of "absolutes"--as in can something really be defined as simply good, or simply evil, or is everything relative, or according to the judgment of the people involved?  In grammar, there are "absolutes". Absolutes are words which describe something, but which cannot be used to make a comparison--to mean that one thing is "more" of something than another  Absolutes cannot be used to mean that a thing is superlative-- the "most" of something--as in good, better, best--or tall, taller, tallest.
     "Unique" is an absolute. A thing cannot be more or less unique--it either is unique ( one of a kind ) or it is not. Perfect is also an absolute. A thing is either perfect or it is not. It can be called closer to perfect, or less than perfect, but that is the only way to mean anything but perfect when saying that something is perfect. Qualifiers seem silly when used with absolutes--a little bit, sort of, and others. Dead is an example of an absolute you might see misused in this way. Someone either is, or is not, dead. No one can be sort of dead, or a little bit dead. A person can be nearly dead, but not kind of dead.

a swan song

     Some kinds of swans ( large birds, something like geese ) supposedly only sing once in lifetime--just before they die.  So to refer to something as someone's "swan song" is to say that it was the only speech they made before they died. To tell someone that a speech will be their "swan song" is to tell them the words will be their last--to threaten to "off" them, or to have them "offed", mobster-style.
  

bootlegging

     The original "bootleggers" sold alcohol when alcohol was illegal in the United States, in the 1920's. A bottle of alcohol would fit in the smuggler's boot, supposedly--hence the name "bootlegger". Bootleggers were very popular with most people. Although a percentage of voters large enough to amend the U.S. Constitution voted for prohibition ( the prohibition of alcohol ), many people broke the law by patronizing bootleggers and visiting "speakeasies" ( illegal bars ). According to the informal history of the prohibition era ( 1918-1932 ), there were more speakeasies than there had been bars, and more people visited them.  Prohibition is also credited with the rise of organized crime in America. There was crime before prohibition, of course, but bootlegging or "rum running"  ( smuggling alcohol from Canada or another foreign country ) made the criminals popular among otherwise law-abiding citizens, leaving a legacy of  "the noble experiment" that we may still be living with today.

placebo, panacea, magic bullet

     A panacea is a cure-all. Patent medicines were once sold without prescription in America, many of them claiming that they could be used to cure almost anything. Panacea is used in a  figurative sense as well as a literal or physical sense--as in the idea that foreign trade is the panacea for all of America's problems, for example.
     A placebo is a sugar pill. Doctors sometimes gave placebos to hypochondriacs. The pills made them feel better, even though there was nothing in them. Placebos sometimes work even when people are ill or in pain. This is called the placebo effect--we think we feel better because we think we are taking medicine.
     A magic bullet, to modern medical science, means a specific cure for a specific disease--the one that researchers hope they will someday find for cancer, for instance. Some researchers believe they may one day find a drug, or a combination of drugs, that would wipe out this disease. That would be the magic bullet.
   A silver bullet, of course, is the only way to kill a  werewolf.

what is a boycott?

     To boycott a business or organization means to refuse to do business with it, in a public way, as a group or body of people. Boycotts are organized for various reasons--the employment policies of the firm being boycotted, or its business practices or investment policies. People may decide to boycott a business because they have learned that its hiring practices are unfair, or because it refuses to stop polluting the environment. People may decide to boycott a business because some of its money is invested in countries where human rights abuses are common.
     A boycott is not the same as a strike. Employees go on strike when they refuse to work until their grievances are addressed. Employees going on strike usually belong to a union, but a strike can be effective without an organized union.
     A boycott is not the same as an embargo. When the government of a country decides not to trade with another country, that is an embargo.

conscientious objector

     A conscientious objector was someone who refused to be drafted into the army. Being drafted meant that the government sent you a letter, and told you that you had to be in the army, whether you wanted to serve in the war or not. The United States of America doesn't have a draft now--we have an all volunteer army. Young men are still required to register with the Selective Service for the draft, but no one has actually been drafted in years. When our country did have a draft, some people refused to go, citing religious reasons. They told the Selective Service that they didn't believe in fighting in wars. They would have a sort of hearing to try to prove the point. One way to prove that you didn't believe in fighting in a war was to be a member of a "peace church". Members of some churches had already been jailed in World War I for refusing to serve. During World War II, many of these people were offered peacetime service when their names came up in the draft. Later their churches were recognized as "peace churches", not exactly exempt from the draft, but with the conscientious objector status of their members already proved. An individual who did not belong to one of these churches ( Quakers, Amish and Mennonites ) would have to make his own case for conscientious objector status.
     You can watch the old movie Sergeant York to see how someone tried to prove that he was a conscientious objector. Or you can look for a biography of Muhammed Ali, the prizefighter, one of America's most famous conscientious objectors. The army decided Ali failed to prove that he refused to serve for religious reasons, and his fighting career was interrupted by a jail term for refusing to be drafted. Many people admired the strength of Ali's convictions. At about the same time, the news carried pictures of Elvis being drafted into the army, and getting a regulation uncool haircut.

a quorum

     A quorum is the number of members of a club or organization necessary to conduct business. A quorum may be expressed as a number, or as the percentage of members present required to make a voting number, or quorum. A group with one hundred members may decide that no voting can take place unless fifty of them are present, for example. The United States Senate has a quorum of fifty-one. If there are fewer than fifty-one members present, the senate cannot vote on a bill. The House of Representatives has a quorum of two hundred and eighteen. Each house of congress requires that more than half of the members be present to vote on a bill, or the vote is postponed.

corruption of blood

     The United States Constitution forbids any laws that would continue the ancient barbarian custom of "corruption of blood". "Corruption of blood meant that if someone was convicted of a crime, particularly, but not limited to, the crime of treason, his or her offspring would become something like outlaws or second-class citizens, without the same legal rights as other citizens.

Potemkin village

     The expression "Potemkin village" was named for a real incident, or what has been handed down as a real incident.. The empress of Russia, more than 200 years ago, was taking a trip across Russia. Her advisors ( including one named Potemkin ) thought she might be upset by the sight of extreme poverty, so they covered some of it up with a facade of a prosperous village, which would look real when seen through the window of her coach.
     Whether the story is literally true or not, the phrase "Potemkin village" now means a false front meant to deceive visitors, reporters, or perhaps government officials.

sixteen tons

     Remember that old song "Sixteen Tons"?  It was sung as if by a coal miner, who says: "Saint Peter don't you call me 'cause I can't go--I owe my soul to the company store".  The company store was real. A manufacturing or mining concern might build housing for its employees, especially if it was located in an otherwise rural area. Rent for the housing was taken out of employee wages. Goods could be bought at a company store, where prices were high. If the company store had competition, workers and their families might shop somewhere else instead. Sometimes the company store was the only place to buy things, and that could be as bad as the author of the song claims.  A company located in a rural area might also pay its workers in company scrip, instead of in cash. The scrip could only be spent at the company store, no matter how high the prices.The company store might also offer credit to employees, who could wind up owing at the end of the week, just for the groceries they needed to survive.An employee who owed money to the company store couldn't quit his job. He might be arrested and charged with theft if he tried to just walk away.  So the song is really a slice of history, now all but forgotten.

of the people, by the people, for the people

     In his "Gettysburg Address", Lincoln described America as a "government of the people, by the people, for the people". This is still a revolutionary notion to people who insist that the only legitimate government is underwritten by God. It is the great political dividing line, perhaps begun by Henry VIII.  Do people, as mere human beings, have the right to institute governments?  This blogger insists, and ever will, that they do, and for the same reasons stated in the U.S. Declaration of Independence--to secure the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.  To ensure our own rights, we get to say "hey, don't do that" to our neighbors and fellow citizens, people to people, if you will. We don't need to invoke God or gods to legitimize our right to do this. It's what we have a right to do as human beings.

Nippon

     Nippon is a transliteration of the Japanese word for Japan.  You may see it marked on goods made in Japan before WWII--the Second World War. After that goods made in Japan usually were marked "Made in Japan".  The mark is one way to tell how old something is, if it was made in Japan.
     "Nippon" is a reminder that we translate the names of  foreign places into English when we say them--and when we write them. The names of most foreign places, written in their own language, would not be recognizable to us. We wouldn't understand the characters in foreign alphabets, or the characters used in Oriental languages. We spell foreign names the way they sound to us--even foreign names that use the same alphabet that we do. We have even renamed some foreign places--the people who live there might not recognize the word we use for their country or city.

the black market

     "The black market" means the illicit or illegal sale of goods that are usually only sold by the government, or through government regulation. Things that are illegal to possess, such as narcotics or stolen goods, are not generally included in the category of black market goods. An example for an American is a bit hard to think of. Liquor during prohibition made a black market. You could get it legally from a drugstore, but only if you had a prescription. You could buy liquor on the black market, though--or from a bootlegger. The bootlegger might have illegally imported the liquor, or he might have made it himself. Rationed goods ( each person is only allowed one or a few ) are sometimes resold on the black market.  Something that could only be purchased by a member of a certain group--a sports team, for instance--might find its way to the black market, because it couldn't really be resold in a store or through an ad. Sales are made by word of mouth ( each person who hears about the sale tells other people ) or in person.

foreign flags

     A flag is more than just a symbol or decoration. A flag marks or claims a piece of territory. When we see the American flag, we are sure that it is flying over American territory. When we see a picture of the American flag flying somewhere, we assume that the picture was taken in the United States or in a United States territory. A nation's flag also flies over its embassy. The United States of America has embassies in foreign countries, and foreign countries have embassies in the United States. An ambassador works in each embassy, to help with relations between his or her country and the country hosting the embassy.
   National flags are also used in some displays. They are displayed during the Olympic Games, and at the United Nations building in New York, where ambassadors from many countries meet. There are precise rules as to how flags of this kind should be displayed, usually including a display of the flag of the host country alongside and above any foreign flag. We wouldn't like to think that someone was flying a foreign flag in America to claim some of our country for a foreign nation.

self-sufficiency

     Families worry about making ends meet, and paying the bills--but so do countries. Countries also worry about "making a living", and about self-sufficiency.  Here in America, we may find this difficult to understand, since we are a prosperous nation, with the potential for self-sufficiency. That means we can grow or produce everything we actually need. We grow more food than we need, have plenty of fresh water, and have a large supply of coal, oil, and natural gas. We import a lot of manufactured goods now, but we used to make them ourselves, and could make the things we need again, if it became necessary. If we didn't import anything, we would only miss some spices, tea, and coffee.
    Some countries are not so fortunate. The Arab nations are a good example. They have a lot of oil, which they can sell to get food and other things they need, but they are not self-sufficient. They cannot grow enough food for all of their citizens, since so much of their land is desert. Without foreign trade--other nations buying oil from them--they can't survive. They can't eat oil--or money.

algebra

     Algebra is simple to understand. "Solve for x" is the phrase. X is what is called a "variable"--meaning it could be anything. Sounds complicated, but it really isn't. For example--
5 x 2= x
Solve for x
5 x 2= 10
x =10
Does it still seem complicated?
9 + x = 10
x =

checkmate

     "Checkmate" means the end of a chess game. It is the chess equivalent of  "I win!"  The object of the chess game is to capture ( some people use the word kill ) the opponent's king. All of the other pieces on the board are attempting to protect their own king, and attack the enemy king. When the enemy king is surrounded, he is in "check". When he is surrounded with no escape, the opponent has been "checkmated", and the game is over. Some people signify this by knocking over the king ( their own "checkmated" king ), as an admission of defeat. To reach out and knock over someone else's king is considered quite nasty. The checkmated opponent will want to examine the board for any possible move left open. The opponent may find a move you didn't notice, and might still win the game. So play nice.