black humor

     You may read that a film or TV show is an example of "black humor" or a "black comedy", and wonder where the black actors and comedians are. A sensible question. "Black humor" or "black comedy" traditionally means a kind of sick humor or comedy, for instance, a humorous murder story or crime story. An old favorite film of mine is an excellent example of this--Kind Hearts and Coronets.  The hero of this movie kills a dozen or so people, and it's extremely funny. Well, they're not real people, just fictional characters--but in a standard movie we are supposed to care or disapprove, and in this one we don't. We just think it's outrageous, but funny. Arsenic and Old Lace is another good example of a black comedy. Two old spinsters may have hidden a body in their house--but it's just silly and funny.  If I think of a more recent example I'll add it to this post

impeachment

          You may remember all of the media coverage of the trial to impeach Bill Clinton, back when he was president. The Constitution of the United States ( Article I, Section 3 ) defines impeachment as removal from office. A person impeached and convicted may be removed from office, and barred from holding any other office. If a president is impeached but not convicted,  nothing else happens. When a president is impeached because he is suspected of a crime ( the Constitution , Article II, Section 4, lists bribery, treason, and  high crimes and misdemeanors as impeachable offenses),  then he may also be tried for the crime, in an ordinary trial, just as any other defendant would be, whether or not  his impeachment trial ends in a conviction. This has never happened in the United States.
     When Richard Nixon was president, the Congress was deliberating whether or not to impeach him for "high crimes and misdemeanors" when he resigned from office. He could not be impeached, since he was no longer president. He was not tried for any crime, because Gerald Ford, the next president, granted him a pardon. Whether a pardon is valid if a person has not been accused of a specific crime was never really put to the test. There was little objection, as people were too relieved to be back to a normal state of affairs, with a president who was not accused of anything.
    

making war

     You may read in news articles or on blogs about "undeclared war", such as the Vietnam War or the Korean War. People get excited about this for a reason. The President of the United States is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, but only Congress can declare war. This is part of the United States Constitution, Article I, Section 8.  Since there are hundreds of Congressmen, all locally elected, and only one president, most people feel that Congress has something more like the mandate of the public when it decides to declare war. Presidents have tried to get around this provision by "lending" troops, or by sending "advisors" to other countries, when they really want to participate in a war.Congress may retaliate by refusing to vote for extra funds ( money ) to be spent on something that looks like a war, but which hasn't been "declared" a war by Congress.
     Since we have a large standing ( peacetime ) army,  additional funds may not be needed to fight a  small-to-medium sized war. Additional soldiers may not be needed, so no one will be drafted to fight in the "undeclared" war. There are few protests, since everyone who is in the army joined the army, as a volunteer. A few columnists and bloggers object that this undermines the Constitution, and they're right. Most of the rest of us are used to the situation now, since it has been repeated so many times in the past 50 years.
    

faculty and tenure

    Faculty and tenure are two words often misused to discuss elementary, middle or high school.  Faculty and tenure each have a specific meaning, but only when discussing a college, a university, or any other  post-secondary school. A  member of the faculty of a university is elected by the existing faculty. Before voting on a new faculty member, existing faculty may read what he or she has written; hear a sample lecture; and "audition" him or her in a classroom--with real students. A college or university ( a group of colleges, united as one institution ) has a president, elected by, and from among, the faculty  members.  Faculty members are not fired, but may be "voted" out of their jobs, at any time before they are granted "tenure".  Once a faculty member has been granted "tenure", he or she can not be fired or dismissed.
    None of these standard definitions of "faculty" or "tenure" apply to elementary or secondary ( high school ) teaching. Teachers in elementary, middle, and junior or senior high schools are not elected, they are hired--by the school board, the principal, or a combination of the two. While teachers can not be summarily dismissed, they can be fired. There are no public school teachers in the United States who "can't" be fired. Teachers are professionals, licensed by the state, and may request a hearing if they believe they are being dismissed unfairly. Many other workers have this right as part of a contract with their employer.
     Next time you read about public school teachers who can't be fired, remember that the rest of the speech or article is no more reliable than the information on the mythical "tenure".

mutual benefit society

     You may hear someone use the phrase "mutual benefit society" as if that were a bad thing. A "mutual benefit society", 200 years ago or thereabouts, was a type of life and accident insurance. Everyone who belonged to the society paid dues. Any member who was killed would be buried with funds from the society. Some of these were called "burial societies". Some societies had provisions  for a permanently disabled member to  collect a disability benefit.  Today your employer probably pays the premiums or "dues" for your insurance, as part of your wages or salary.

federal, state, county and local

     Each of the citizens of the United States actually lives under 3 or 4 governments. This is usually called a federal system, and we call our national government the federal government. We might also call it the government of the United States. The federal government gets money by taxing our incomes--usually deducted from the paychecks of workers, but businesses pay income taxes, too.
     Each citizen of the United states also lives in a state or territory--probably one of the 50 states represented by the white stars on our flag. I live in Pennsylvania, which has a state government in Harrisburg, the state capitol. Our governor is the chief executive officer of our state, as the President is the chief executive officer of the United States. State governments issue our driver's licenses, regulate alcohol, tobacco, and firearms, build and maintain state roads, highways, and bridges, regulate and finance, in part, our educational system, and administer our courts and prisons, among other things.  State governments get money through sales taxes ( added to the price of things we buy ) , and perhaps through a small income tax in addition to the federal income tax.
     I live in a city, which is also a county. The city has a mayor and a city council, and the county has a sheriff and a board of commissioners. You may live in town, village, borough, hamlet or city that has a local governing body, such as a board of selectmen, aldermen, or councilmen.  If so, you also live in a county, which also has a government. So you may have 4 governments. Some of the more rural citizens have no local or municipal government, since they don't live in a town, but everyone has a county government. The county government includes the sheriff, who impanels juries, and the coroner, who may call an inquest to determine a cause of death. County governments may maintain county roads, and police unincorporated ( not in a town or city ) land.
    Local governments--city, town, or village--usually provide police and fire protection, trash removal, local street repair, and, with financial aid from the state, local schools. Local governments get money through property taxes. Each owner of a building or lot has to pay taxes on it each year. Buildings and lots ( property with no buildings ) are assessed by local governments, to determine how much they are worth, and taxes are paid on this amount.

Puerto Rico

     Puerto Rico is a part of the United States of America. Puerto Ricans are American citizens, not foreigners.  Puerto Rico is not one of the fifty states, but a commonwealth. The Puerto Ricans have been asked to decide if they would like to be the fifty-first American state more than once in the past few decades. They put the motion to a plebiscite--a popular vote on the issue--and it was turned down. The Puerto Ricans voted to retain their commonwealth status, instead of becoming one of the United States, or an independent nation. Many Americans would like to see Puerto Rico, and America's other overseas possessions, become either states of the United States or independent nations. Some U.S. citizens don't like the idea of having territorial possessions, where people don't really have the same rights as the rest of us. Citizens of territorial possessions have no representatives in Congress, for example.
     Puerto Ricans have voted that they like the way things are arranged, and don't really want them changed.
     Puerto Ricans are American citizens, and may travel to the United States in the same way that the rest of us may travel from state to state. Americans may visit Puerto Rico without ( politically ) leaving the United States, so they won't need a visa or a passport.

the federal government

     Our federal government does doe many things, that probably no one person or source could accurately name them all, but here's a start:

 The United States Postal Service  ( USPS ) prints postage stamps and delivers mail.

The United States Mint mints coins and prints money.

The United States Army ( USA ), Navy ( USN ) , Air Force ( USAF ) , Marines  ( USMC ) and Coast Guard  ( USCG ) protect our country.

The Federal Aviation Administration  ( FAA ) regulates air traffic and safety.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration  ( NASA ) runs the space ans satellite programs.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation  ( FBI ) investigates federal crimes.

The Central Intelligence Agency  ( CIA ) are something like spies, but legal.

The Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) regulates the buying and selling of stock--as in Wall Street.





The United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) inspects meat and produce for safety.

The Department of Veteran's Affairs ( VA ) helps veterans of our armed forces, with disability payments, pensions, and other problems.

These are some of the best-known departments of our government. More will follow in another episode.

quartering of soldiers

     The United States Constitution, Amendment III, guarantees us that "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law". This guarantee seems old-fashioned to us now, but it has the same meaning that it did 200 years ago, when it was written to protect American citizens from a repetition of abuses they had suffered under British rule--when soldiers were quartered in the homes of the people, whether they liked it or not. People had to let the soldiers stay in one of their rooms, even if they didn't really have space for them. Quartering meant they had to feed them, too. In Boston, the soldiers were quartered in the homes of the people whose city they were sent to besiege. The Bostonians resented this, and helped to make sure that the American army would not treat American  citizens as the British had done.  We will never answer the door to find soldiers on the other side, demanding lodging, unless we have been informed first by our government that this is necessary because of a war.
    

the biggest hoarder

    One of the things our federal government does, and does well, is save stuff. Hoarding is small-time compared to the U.S. government. The Library of Congress, in Washington, D.C.,  has most of the books ever published in English, and a lot of books in other languages.  Two copies of every book published in the United States are sent to the Library of Congress, although it doesn't keep every one of them. The Library of Congress also has a lot of documents, on paper an online. The bookshelves of the Library of Congress could be measured in hundreds of miles.
     The National Archives and Records Administration , also in Washington, D.C., keeps copies of government  and historical records. The records of servicemen, census records, photographs, ship's passenger lists, legislative and law enforcement records, and just about anything that you can think of that would be on a piece of paper are kept in the national Archives.  The National Archives recently moved part of its collection to a second building, because it was running out of space to keep things. The National Archives administers the presidential libraries, with public papers left by each president. There are branches of the National Archives in several large cities, including Philadelphia.
   The Smithsonian Institution, also in Washington, D.C., is actually a set of 19 museums, including the Air and Space Museum, Natural History Museum, African American History and Cultural Museum, American Indian Museum, the Freer Gallery of Art, and the National Zoo,  The Smithsonian keeps things, from the plane flown by Charles Lindbergh, to the ruby slippers worn by Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz.  The Smithsonian buys some of these things, but many are given to them as bequests, or as gifts. People with something old and interesting often contact the Smithsonian to see if it might find a home in a museum.

freedom of assembly

     The Constitution of the United States, Amendment I, guarantees "the right of the people peaceably to assemble". This is usually called simply the right to assemble, or the right of assembly.  It means that people may have public meetings--political meetings, PTA meetings, union meetings, church socials and many other kinds of meetings. Our government does not have the right to break up meetings because large groups of people make it nervous. The things people may not do at public meetings are few--they are the same things people may not say, although we have freedom of speech. People may not advocate violence, violent crime, or the violent overthrow of the government.
     Some controversial public assembly news stories are actually about where people may assemble. A church,  school, or  building rented or borrowed for the purpose may all be used for public meetings. But what about public space? Roads, parking lots, and parks are sometimes not considered legally appropriate for a public meeting. There are safety issues, and permits from local government or law enforcement authorities may be required. Roads and parks belong to all of the members of the community, so blocking off the access of the rest of the public may cause legal trouble. Parking lots may actually be private property--property that belongs to a mall or store.
     One of the strangest things people say about the right to assemble is to rename it the "right of free association". No "right of association " is to be found in the Constitution, nor is any such right guaranteed by our government. Association means just what it seems to mean--the right to socialize with anyone, with no restrictions. Some people do have "social" restrictions--they agreed to them when they took their jobs. Some employees of banks or financial institutions, for example, may not associate with convicted felons. People on probation or parole agree not to associate with former criminal contacts, as a condition of parole or probation.
    Freedom of Assembly, guaranteed. Freedom of association does not exist, legally, and it's not likely to become law in the future.

selective service system

     The Selective Service System, an agency of the federal government of the United States, is still commonly called the draft. Being drafted into the army means serving in the army because the government tells you to, even if you don't want to. Our government doesn't currently draft young men into the army, but they still have to register with the Selective Service when they are eighteen years old. If a young man hasn't registered, and is under twenty-six, he may still register and avoid prosecution for evading the draft.
     Draft registration is required in case our country becomes involved in a  major war and needs a larger army than volunteers can provide. Every American male is required to register. In the event of an actual draft, the disabled or unfit would be exempt from conscription.
     
    

the vice president

     The Vice President of the United States keeps very busy, or so it seems on looking at a newspaper or magazine, but he only has one official duty. He is the President of the Senate, but may only vote in case of a tie. Other than that, he is the man who becomes the new President if the President resigns or dies. No election is held. The Vice President is sworn in with the Oath of Office as soon as it can be arranged, and becomes the new President. His term ends when the old President's term would have ended. He may run for President in the next election. If the term he "finished" was less than two years, he may run for election twice--or rather, he may win the election for president twice. He may run as often as he likes if he loses.

how to become an American

     All of the people born in the United States are citizens of the United States. Many people born in other countries are also citizens of the United States. They become citizens of the United States by coming to the United States from their home country. They need the permission of our government to do this, as we would need permission from their governments to visit their countries. If people come to America as tourists, or on business, their visas, or permission to enter our country, will say how long they may remain in the United States. Other people ask permission to emigrate to America. They want to move here and make a living here. They apply for resident alien ( foreigner, not space being ) status. If they are working, they have to pay taxes, even before they become citizens. Money earned in America gets taxed in America.
    When the foreign-born person has lived in America for five years, he or she may take the citizenship test. You may find a sample test online if you're interested in how your citizenship knowledge measures up. If the immigrant fails the test, he or she may take it again. When the prospective citizen passes the test, he or she will be "sworn in" as an American citizen. This includes abjuring citizenship in any other country.
    The new citizen can now vote in elections--federal, state, and local. He or she will need to reside in the United States for seven years before running for Congress, or nine years before running for the Senate. There are very few differences between the rights of native-born citizens and "naturalized" citizens, as the authors of our Constitution did not want to set up a system of "classes" of citizenship, with one set always inferior. The most well-known difference is that a naturalized ( not born in the U.S ) citizen may not serve as President of the United States.

"excluding Indians not taxed"

     The phrase "excluding Indians not taxed" occurs several times in the  Constitution of the United States. This does not mean that Indians don't pay taxes. American Indians, also called Native Americans, were considered citizens of their Indian nations or tribes, and not of the United States. They were not counted in any census which was used to levy taxes according to population. Indians were also not counted in any census used to apportion representatives in Congress.
    American Indians couldn't vote in elections until they became citizens of the United States in 1924.  The last states to keep Indians from voting held out until 1948, claiming that Indians didn't pay local real estate taxes on tribal or reservation land. The Indians didn't attend the local schools or use any other local services, since their relationship was with the federal government and the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
      You can read in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside".
     Indians didn't live in any "state", since reservations were considered federal territory, even within a state.  The relationship of the Indians to the federal government was by treaty, so it could have been argued that the Indians were not subject to the jurisdiction of the government. Since they were forbidden to leave the reservation, their laws were made and enforced there. Some of the reservation restrictions were still in force in the 1970's.
    

extradition

     When someone is wanted for a crime, and is found in another state, he or she must be delivered to the executive authority ( the governor, or the governor's office ) of the state in which the crime occurred--the state that has jurisdiction. Article V of the United States Constitution guarantees that this right of extradition will be upheld by the federal government and the courts.
    Other cases of extradition that you may read about involve requesting the return of a suspect from a foreign country. This is more complicated, as relations between any two countries are generally made through the treaties they have signed with one another. Extradition may be a part of those treaties, agreed upon by both countries. If the two countries have not signed a treaty that includes a provision for extradition, the country seeking the return of a suspect asks the officials of the foreign government to send him or her back to stand trial--to extradite him or her. The foreign officials may refuse to do this. They may be angry at our country. They may think they can win a concession by refusing to extradite a fugitive. They may think the fugitive will be treated unfairly--for instance, to many countries the death penalty is unfair, and they may refuse to extradite an accused who may be sentenced to execution.
    Two countries who can't agree about an extradition may appeal to the World Court to settle the case--but they would each have to agree, before the hearing,  to accept the court's verdict. Some countries, including the United States, generally refuse to accept the authority of the World Court.
   

advice and consent

     The Constitution of the United States gives the president the power to make treaties and appointments with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. The president agrees to a treaty ( a deal made with another country ) , appoints someone to the Supreme Court,  appoints an ambassador ( our country's representative in a foreign country ) or chooses the head of a department of the federal government ( such as the Secretary of the Treasury, or the Attorney General ). The person the president appoints is called a nominee. The nominee doesn't actually have a job until the appointment has been confirmed by a majority ( of those present ) of the Senate.
     Treaties with foreign countries do not take effect until they have been approved by 2/3 of the Senators present.  If only a few Senators are present, the vote sometimes has to wait. The vote will wait for a "quorum"--the minimum number of Senators needed to vote on a particular type of bill or measure. What constitutes a quorum may differ, depending on the measure to be voted on. Congress has a set of rules for this, with a "Rules Committee" to see that the rules are enforced.

say what?

     You may read a news article with a quote form an "unnamed source".  This does not exist. A quote comes from a specific and particular source. The source is named, and anyone reading the quote can check the credentials, where possible, of the person being quoted. An "unnamed source" might as well be "the man on the street" or "overheard in a bar". It may be an interesting article, but the "quote" will not make a point, or win an argument, because we don't know who said it, or if the author merely invented it.
     The other side of the "quote" equation is accuracy. When we see quotation marks, we have the right to assume that the words within the quotation marks are precisely what the speaker said. They may be taken from a written source--one that the reader can check for him or herself. If they are reported as part of a conversation, they must be accurately reported. This is what the quotation marks mean, so anything less than complete accuracy is deception.

proofreading

     Proofreading means reading something you have written to check it for errors. When you write something, you won't be there to explain anything the reader doesn't understand. Depending on what you are writing, the reader may be someone you have never met. You won't be able to correct an error or an ambiguous sentence, and you won't be able to strengthen an argument, because you won't be there.
     One of the best ways to check something for errors is to have someone else read your writing . Another person may notice things you've missed. If no one else is available to proofread your writing, proofread it yourself twice. Or three times. Check your spelling and make sure that you have used the correct word, and not something that sounds like it.  Check your punctuation. Make sure to leave spaces where they belong, so your work will be easier to read.
     Check your facts. Or research them and add them if they will help you to make your point.
     Last but not least, make sure that you have made your point. Delete words or phrases that don't have anything to do with what you are saying. Imagine that you are attempting to convince someone who doesn't believe you, who disagrees with you, or who doesn't understand what you are saying. Then consider whether or not your writing conveys your message. No matter how controversial the topic, a good piece of writing can at least open a conversation.
   

historical fiction

    I have recently been reading a work of historical fiction by a very famous author.  I am certified to teach history in Pennsylvania's secondary schools and  I haven't read much historical fiction written for adults, because I usually read non-fiction. Historical fiction can be a good introduction to history. Many authors spend a lot of time doing research so that the historical background of their novels will be accurate. The main characters, all fictional, may mention political or religious figures who are history now. The plot of the novel may involve real historical conflicts--politics, war, religion, economics.
     But how is the reader to know if the author is an accurate historian? Authors who invent believable characters probably take the trouble to make sure that their history is also believable. The easiest way to write believable history would be to do some research. Writers of fiction do not have to cite sources, as academic writers have to do. So we don't know where they got their historical information.
     The book I've been reading recently has fictional characters meeting real figures from history, and having long conversations. These conversations can't actually be "real" history, as some of the characters are fictional. The author might have used writings of the real historical figures to make their parts of the conversations, but this would be time-consuming to check without some help from the author. I think the author just invented them, which I find a shocking notion--putting words into someone else's mouth, who can't sue because he's been dead a hundred years. Why do I believe that this particular author invented the conversations? Because he seems so unreliable in other ways--outrageous use of stereotypes, inconsistent grammar, including some errors many high-school students wouldn't have made.
   Reading is like listening to someone talk. We all know when we don't believe someone. Explaining why can be more difficult.

the civil war

     It's popular now to say that the Civil war wasn't really about slavery, and that's true, in a way. The Civil War was about who was going to run the country. The South, because of the 3/5 Compromise ( see related blog article ), had representation in Congress out of proportion to the number of its citizens. The South was used to pretty much having its way in Congress, if not in the Senate.Although not always a majority, Southern representatives were more likely to vote with one another than Northerners were.
      In the decades before the Civil War, the number of Senators from slave-holding states and from free states was equal. The South was determined to preserve this balance. New territories in the West were applying for statehood. Admission of even one free state would have meant that the South would be outnumbered in the Senate. Each application for statehood became a political crisis. Northerners who never managed to abolish slavery were determined not to permit it to spread to the West. Southerners would have lost most of their political clout if they became greatly outnumbered in Congress by Northerners. Once they became a large majority, the Northerners might move to abolish slavery--and they might win. Another way to keep the North from becoming a majority was to oppose immigration, since most immigrants, then and now, came to the North.
    So you can see how the Civil War was, and wasn't about slavery.
    

pigs in history

     Two hundred years ago, people who kept pigs let them run loose to forage for food. The pigs ate acorns and roots most of the time. The people who kept them fed then "slops" sometimes--kitchen leftovers that would go in a compost pile today. When they put out the slops, they called the pigs-often with the famous cry of "soo--ey". The pigs would come running, knowing that they were going to get a meal without the work of rooting  through the woods. If the people wanted some tasty pork chops or bacon,  when the pigs showed up to be fed they conked one of them on the head.  It seems mean, when the pigs were so happy with their slops, but the remaining pigs came the next time someone called.

shooting cows in the head

     I recently watched the video of the notorious "shooting cows in the head" incident from a few months back ( sorry, but I'm trained as history teacher, so current events aren't quite my strong suit ). The video was somewhat nasty-- I can't recommend viewing it. But what was going on in the video was not cow murder, or a cow massacre, it was untrained or inadequately trained people trying to do a job. Yes, a job. As the story was told to me--35 or 40 years ago--most cows are killed by being shot in the head. It is supposed to be an efficient and "humane" method of bovine execution. Most Americans cheerfully eat the cows, and they ( the cows ) do have to die before they can become a hamburger. The people in the video seemed inept, at best, which made a very messy scene, and caused unnecessary trauma to the cows, who became hamburgers anyway.